Konsentrasi PM10, PM2,5 dan PM1 di Lingkungan Indoor Perumahan pada Area Urban: Kajian Literatur

Mila Dirgawati; Didin Agustian Permadi; Dzakiyyah Afifah Aurora

Authors

Mila Dirgawati Institut Teknologi Nasional Bandung Author
Didin Agustian Permadi Institut Teknologi Nasional Bandung Author
Dzakiyyah Afifah Aurora Institut Teknologi Nasional Bandung Author

Keywords:

fine particulate, particulate matter, indoor housing, urban area

Abstract

Indoor air pollution has not yet received as much attention as outdoor air pollution. It is estimated that indoor air pollutant concentrations can be 2-5 times higher than outdoor air, even though people spend more than 80% of their time indoors. It has been recorded that 4,3 million people have died due to poor indoor air quality. Fine particulates with sizes ≤ 1 μm (PM₁), ≤ 2,5 μm (PM_2,5), and ≤ 10 μm (PM₁₀) are the main pollutants that can degrade indoor air quality. The purpose of this study is to review previous research on the concentrations of PM₁₀, PM_2,5, and PM₁ in indoor residential environments in urban areas, and to identify the influencing factors. The results show that concentrations of PM₁₀, PM_2,5, and PM₁can be influenced by human activities (such as cooking, smoking, heating, and cleaning), building characteristics (including ventilation, materials, and humidity), and infiltration from outdoor air. The indoor/outdoor (I/O) ratio value determines the dominant sources of particulates, with a value >1,2 indicating indoor dominance and <0,8 indicating outdoor dominance. The correlation (r) between indoor and outdoor concentrations was found to be positive and strong, reinforcing the impact of outdoor air quality on indoor air quality.

References

[1] Adams, K., Greenbaum, D. S., Shaikh, R., van Erp, A. M., & Russell, A. G. (2015). Particulate matter components, sources, and health: Systematic approaches to testing effects. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 65(5), 544-558.

[2] Akther, T., Ahmed, M., Shohel, M., Ferdousi, F. K., & Salam, A. (2019). Particulate matters and gaseous pollutants in indoor environment and association of ultra-fine particulate matters (PM1) with lung function. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 26(6), 5475-5484.

[3] Anggraini, F. J., Shalsabila, A., & Rodhiyah, Z. (2023). Sebaran Particulate Matter (PM10, PM2, 5, PM1, PM0, 1) di SMP Negeri 1 Kota Jambi Menggunakan Model CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics). INSOLOGI: Jurnal Sains dan Teknologi, 2(4), 690-702.

[4] Alias, M., Hamzah, Z., Kenn, L., S. (2007). “PM10 dan Total Suspended Particulates (TSP) Measurements in Various Power Station”. The Malaysian Journal of Analytical Sciences. Vol. 1: 255-261

[5] Alves, C. A., Vicente, A. M., Custódio, D., Cerqueira, M., Nunes, T., Pio, C., Lucarelli, F., Calzolai, G., Nava, S., Diapouli, E., Eleftheriadis, K., Querol, X., and Bandowe, B. A. 2017. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their derivatives (nitro-PAHs, oxygenated PAHs and azaarenes) in PM from Southern European cities, Science of the Total Environment. 595:494-504

[6] Andersen, C., Omelekhina, Y., Rasmussen, B. B., Nygaard Bennekov, M., Skov, S. N., Køcks, M., ... & Wierzbicka, A. (2021). Emissions of soot, PAHs, ultrafine particles, NOx, and other health relevant compounds from stressed burning of candles in indoor air. Indoor Air, 31(6), 2033-2048.

[7] Andriani, S. (2021). Kualitas Udara Dalam Ruangan Sekolah (PM2. 5, PM10, CO2, Dan HCHO) Dan Risiko Kesehatan Pada Siswa Di Kota Serang. Journal Of Baja Health Science, 1(02), 141-155.

[8] Bari, M. A., Kindzierski, W. B., Wallace, L. A., Wheeler, A. J., MacNeill, M., & Héroux, M. E. (2015). Indoor and outdoor levels and sources of submicron particles (PM1) at homes in Edmonton, Canada. Environmental Science & Technology, 49(11), 6419-6429.

[9] Barrington-Leigh, C., Baumgartner, J., Carter, E., Robinson, B. E., Tao, S., & Zhang, Y. (2019). An evaluation of air quality, home heating and well-being under Beijing’s programme to eliminate household coal use. Nature Energy, 4(5), 416-423.

[10] Błaszczyk, E., Rogula-Kozłowska, W., Klejnowski, K., Kubiesa, P., Fulara, I., & Mielżyńska-Švach, D. (2017). Indoor air quality in urban and rural kindergartens: short-term studies in Silesia, Poland. Air Quality, Atmosphere & Health, 10(10), 1207-1220.

[11] Bousiotis, D., Alconcel, L. N. S., Beddows, D. C., Harrison, R. M., & Pope, F. D. (2023). Monitoring and apportioning sources of indoor air quality using low-cost particulate matter sensors. Environment International, 174, 107907.

[12] Burdová, E. K., Vilčeková, S., & Kapalo, P. (2020). Indoor and Outdoor Measurements of Particulate Matter Concentrations: A Case Study Košice-Sever, Slovakia. Selected Scientific Papers-Journal of Civil Engineering, 15(1), 77-88.

[13] Cichowicz, R., & Dobrzański, M. (2021). Spatial analysis (measurements at heights of 10 m and 20 m above ground level) of the concentrations of particulate matter (PM10, PM2. 5, and PM1. 0) and gaseous pollutants (H2S) on the university campus: a case study. Atmosphere, 12(1), 62.

[14] Chen, C., & Zhao, B. (2011). Review of relationship between indoor and outdoor particles: I/O ratio, infiltration factor and penetration factor. Atmospheric environment, 45(2), 275-288.

[15] Chen, X., Li, J., Zhang, X., Liu, S., Franky, K., Li, W., & Bi, W. (2021). The effects of warm air heater on the dispersion and deposition of particles in an enclosed environment. Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 21(7), 200620.

[16] Cheng, P. L., & Li, X. (2018). Air infiltration rates in the bedrooms of 202 residences and estimated parametric infiltration rate distribution in Guangzhou, China. Energy and Buildings, 164, 219-225.

[17] Cheriyan, D., Hyun, K. Y., Jaegoo, H., & Choi, J. H. (2020). Assessing the distributional characteristics of PM10, PM2. 5, and PM1 exposure profile produced and propagated from a construction activity. Journal of Cleaner Production, 276, 124335.

[18] Danek, T., Weglinska, E., Zareba, M., (2022). The influence of meteorological factors and terrain on air pollution concentration and migration: a geostatistical case study from Krakow, Poland. Sci. Rep. 12, 11050. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-15160- 3.

[19] Drago, G., Perrino, C., Canepari, S., Ruggieri, S., L’Abbate, L., Longo, V., ... & RESPIRA Collaborative Project Group. (2018). Relationship between domestic smoking and metals and rare earth elements concentration in indoor PM2. 5. Environmental Research, 165, 71-80.

[20] Driejana, K. (2020). AINK, dan Santoso, M.(2020): Komposisi Kimia Pencemar Partikulat Kasar dan Halus di DKI Jakarta Pada Musim Hujan dan Musim Kemarau. Jurnal Ilmu Lingkungan, 18(3), 522-530.

[21] Elf, J. L., Kinikar, A., Khadse, S., Mave, V., Suryavanshi, N., Gupte, N., ... & Golub, J. E. (2018). Sources of household air pollution and their association with fine particulate matter in low-income urban homes in India. Journal of exposure science & environmental epidemiology, 28(4), 400-410.

[22] Estrada, J.M., Kraakman, N.J.R.B., Munoz, R., Lebrero, R., 2011. A comparative analysis ~ of odour treatment technologies in wastewater treatment plants. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45, 1100e1106. https://doi.org/10.1021/es103478j. EU Council, 2008. COUNCIL DIRECTIVE 1976L0769.

[23] European Comission, (2003). Indoor Air Pollution: New EU Research Reveals Higher Risks than Previously Thought. European Comission.

[24] European Environment Agency. (2017). Air Quality in Europe d 2017 Report. https:// doi.org/10.2800/850018. European Environmental Agency, 2019. Air Quality in Europe d 2019 Report. https://doi.org/10.2800/822355.

[25] European Environment Agency. (2013). Air Quality in Europe d 2013 Report: EEA Report No 9/2013. European Union.

[26] Faroqi, A., Halim, D. K., Sanjaya, M., & Ph, D. W. S. (2017). Perancangan Alat Pendeteksi Kadar Polusi Udara Menggunakan Sensor Gas MQ-7 Dengan Teknologi Wireless HC-05. Jurnal Istek, Vol. 10, No.2, Juli, 33–47. https://journal.uinsgd.ac.id

[27] Farhan, M., & Islam, F. (2025). Pengukuran Kualitas Udara Particulat Matter (PM2, 5) Dalam Ruangan Di PT. Rekind Daya Mamuju. Jurnal Kesehatan Lingkungan Mapaccing, 3(1), 7-16.

[28] Fu, N., Kim, M. K., Huang, L., Liu, J., Chen, B., & Sharples, S. (2022). Experimental and numerical analysis of indoor air quality affected by outdoor air particulate levels (PM1. 0, PM2. 5 and PM10), room infiltration rate, and occupants' behaviour. Science of The Total Environment, 851, 158026.

[29] Giordano, M. R., Malings, C., Pandis, S. N., Presto, A. A., McNeill, V. F., Westervelt, D. M., ... & Subramanian, R. (2021). From low-cost sensors to high-quality data: A summary of challenges and best practices for effectively calibrating low-cost particulate matter mass sensors. Journal of Aerosol Science, 158, 105833.

[30] Gonçalves, J. C., Costa, J. J., & Lopes, A. M. G. (2019). Analysis of the air infiltration through the doorway of a refrigerated room using different approaches. Applied thermal engineering, 159, 113927.

[31] Hassanvand, M. S., Naddafi, K., Faridi, S., Arhami, M., Nabizadeh, R., Sowlat, M. H., ... & Yunesian, M. (2014). Indoor/outdoor relationships of PM10, PM2. 5, and PM1 mass concentrations and their water-soluble ions in a retirement home and a school dormitory. Atmospheric Environment, 82, 375-382.

[32] Huang, L., Pu, Z., Li, M., & Sundell, J. (2015). Characterizing the indoor-outdoor relationship of fine particulate matter in non-heating season for urban residences in Beijing. PloS one, 10(9), e0138559.

[33] Herkert, N. J., Spak, S. N., Smith, A., Schuster, J. K., Harner, T., Martinez, A., & Hornbuckle, K. C. (2018). Calibration and evaluation of PUF-PAS sampling rates across the Global Atmospheric Passive Sampling (GAPS) network. Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts, 20(1), 210-219.

[34] Hung. H, A.A. Katsoyiannis, E. Brorstrom-Lunden, K. Olafsdottir, W. Aas, K. Breivik, P. Bohlin-Nizzetto, A. Sigurdsson, H. Hakola, R. Bossi, H. Skov, E. Sverko, E. Barresi, P. Fellin, S. Wilson, Temporal trends of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in arctic air: 20 years of monitoring under the arctic monitoring and assessment programme (AMAP), Environ. Pollut. 217 (2016) 52e61

[35] Hossain, M. S., Che, W., Frey, H. C., & Lau, A. K. (2021). Factors affecting variability in infiltration of ambient particle and gaseous pollutants into home at urban environment. Building and Environment, 206, 108351.

[36] Ilenič, A., Pranjić, A. M., Zupančič, N., Milačič, R., & Ščančar, J. (2024). Fine particulate matter (PM2. 5) exposure assessment among active daily commuters to induce behaviour change to reduce air pollution. Science of The Total Environment, 912, 169117.

[37] Isaxon, C., Gudmundsson, A., Nordin, E. Z., Lönnblad, L., Dahl, A., Wieslander, G., ... & Wierzbicka, A. (2015). Contribution of indoor-generated particles to residential exposure. Atmospheric Environment, 106, 458-466.

[38] Ji, W., & Zhao, B. (2015). Contribution of outdoor-originating particles, indoor-emitted particles and indoor secondary organic aerosol (SOA) to residential indoor PM2. 5 concentration: A model-based estimation. Building and environment, 90, 196-205.

[39] Kapwata, T., Language, B., Piketh, S., & Wright, C. Y. (2018). Variation of indoor particulate matter concentrations and association with indoor/outdoor temperature: a case study in rural Limpopo, South Africa. Atmosphere, 9(4), 124.

[40] Kazemi, K. V., Mansouri, N., Moattar, F., & Khezri, S. M. (2016). Characterization of indoor/outdoor PM10, PM2. 5, PM1 and radon concentrations in Imam Khomeini hospital. Bulg. Chem. Commun, 48, 345-350.

[41] Kwon, S. B., Jeong, W., Park, D., Kim, K. T., & Cho, K. H. (2015). A multivariate study for characterizing particulate matter (PM10, PM2. 5, and PM1) in Seoul metropolitan subway stations, Korea. Journal of hazardous materials, 297, 295-303.

[42] Lai, F. Y., Rauert, C., Gobelius, L., & Ahrens, L. (2019). A critical review on passive sampling in air and water for per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs). TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 121, 115311.

[43] Leigh, B., C., Baumgartner, J., Carter, E., Robinson, B. E., Tao, S., & Zhang, Y. (2019). An evaluation of air quality, home heating and well-being under Beijing’s programme to eliminate household coal use. Nature Energy, 4(5), 416-423.

[44] Leung, D. Y. (2015). Outdoor-indoor air pollution in urban environment: challenges and opportunity. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 2, 69.

[45] Li, Y., Chen, Q., Zhao, H., Wang, L., & Tao, R. (2015). Variations in PM10, PM2. 5 and PM1. 0 in an urban area of the Sichuan Basin and their relation to meteorological factors. Atmosphere, 6(1), 150-163.

[46] Madonsela, B. S., Maphanga, T., & Mahlakwana, G. (2023). Advancement in the Monitoring Techniques of Particulate Matter and Nitrogen Oxides in African States: A Systematic Review with Meta Analysis. International Journal of Environmental Impacts, 6(1), 37-47.

[47] Mainka, A., & Zajusz-Zubek, E. (2019). PM1 in ambient and indoor air—urban and rural areas in the Upper Silesian Region, Poland. Atmosphere, 10(11), 662.

[48] Mansor, A. A., Ghazali, M. I. H., Abdullah, S., Dom, N. C., Ahmed, A. N., & Ismail, M. (2022). Investigating the Indoor and Outdoor Respirable Suspended Particulates of Coarse (PM 10), Fine (PM 2.5) and Ultrafine (PM 1). Malaysian Journal of Medicine & Health Sciences, 18.

[49] Mašková, L., Smolík, J., Ondráček, J., Ondráčková, L., Travnickova, T., & Havlica, J. (2020). Air quality in archives housed in historic buildings: assessment of concentration of indoor particles of outdoor origin. Building and Environment, 180, 107024.

[50] Mendoza, D. L., Benney, T. M., & Boll, S. (2021). Long-term analysis of the relationships between indoor and outdoor fine particulate pollution: A case study using research grade sensors. Science of The Total Environment, 776, 145778.

[51] Moerdjoko, M. (2004). KAITAN SISTEM VENTlLASI BANGUNAN DENGAN KEBERADAAN MIKROORGANISME UDARA. DIMENSI: Journal of Architecture and Built Environment, 32(1).

[52] Nadali, A., Arfaeinia, H., Asadgol, Z., & Fahiminia, M. (2020). Indoor and outdoor concentration of PM10, PM2. 5 and PM1 in residential building and evaluation of negative air ions (NAIs) in indoor PM removal. Environmental Pollutants and Bioavailability, 32(1), 47-55.

[53] Nirmala, D. S., & Prasasti, C. I. (2014). Konsentrasi PM 2, 5 dan Analisis Karakteristik Pekerja Terhadap Keluhan Kesehatan Pekerja Pengasapan Ikan di Kelurahan Tambak Wedi Surabaya. Kesehatan Lingkungan, 8(1), 57-68.

[54] N.J. Herkert, S.N. Spak, A. Smith, J.K. Schuster, T. Harner, A. Martinez, K.C. Hornbuckle, Calibration and evaluation of PUF-PAS sampling rates across the global atmospheric passive sampling (GAPS) network, Environ. Sci. Process Impacts 20 (1) (2018) 210e219.

[55] Pan, H., Wang, H., Qian, Y., & Tang, Y. (2021). Correlation analysis of indoor and outdoor PM2. 5 and exploration of prevention methods. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science (Vol. 634, No. 1, p. 012011). IOP Publishing.

[56] Prihardanu, E. G., Kusnoputranto, H., & Herdiansyah, H. (2021). Indoor air quality in urban residential: Current status, regulation and future research for Indonesia. International Journal of Public Health Science (IJPHS), 10(4), 824.

[57] Purwaka PB, Wijanarko SA. 2022. Uji Banding Kinerja Alat High Volume Air Sampler untukPengukuran Total Suspended Particulate (TSP) di Udara Ambien. ECOLAB. 16(2): 87-98.

[58] Qian J, Peccia J, Ferro AR. (2014). Walking-induced particle resuspension in indoor environments. Atmos Environ 89:464–481. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.02.035

[59] Ramadhan, M. A. N., Nugroho, A. S. B., & Irawati, I. S. (2023). Analisis Pengaruh Umur Bangunan Terhadap Tingkat Kepuasan Penghuni. Cantilever: Jurnal Penelitian dan Kajian Bidang Teknik Sipil, 12(2), 63-72.

[60] Raysoni, A. U., Pinakana, S. D., Mendez, E., Wladyka, D., Sepielak, K., & Temby, O. (2023). A review of literature on the usage of low-cost sensors to measure particulate matter. Earth, 4(1), 168-186.

[61] Rivas, I., Fussell, J. C., Kelly, F. J., & Querol, X. (2019). Indoor sources of air pollutants.

[62] Rojano, R., Vengoechea, A. M., & Arregocés, H. A. (2023). Indoor/outdoor relationship of particulate matter (PM10) and its chemical composition in a coastal region of Colombia. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering, 8, 100397.

[63] Roostaei, V., Abbasi, A., Gharibzadeh, F., Faridi, S., Naddafi, K., Yunesian, M., & Hassanvand, M. S. (2024). Vertical distribution of air particulate matter (PM1, PM2. 5, and PM10) in different regions of Tehran. Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 24, 240036.

[64] Royal College of Physicians, 2016. Every Breath We Take: the Lifelong Impact of Air Pollution. Report of a working party, London.

[65] Saggu GS, Mittal SK. (2020). Source apportionment of PM10 by positive matrix factorization model at a source region of biomass burning. J Environ Manag 266:110545. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvm an.2020.110545

[66] Salam A, M. M. (2021). Outdoor and indoor factors influencing particulate matter and carbon dioxide levels in naturally ventilated urban homes. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 71(1), 60-69. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.REFFIT.2017.03.002

[67] Ścibor, M., Bokwa, A., & Balcerzak, B. (2019). Impact of wind speed and apartment ventilation on indoor concentrations of PM10 and PM2. 5 in Kraków, Poland. Air Quality, Atmosphere & Health, 13(5), 553-562.

[68] Schiavon, M., Rada, E. C., Ragazzi, M., Antognoni, S., & Zanoni, S. (2015). Domestic activities and PM generation: A contribution to the understanding of indoor sources of air pollution. International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning, 2015(10: 3), 347-360.

[69] Schulze, F., Gao, X., Virzonis, D., Damiati, S., Schneider, M. R., & Kodzius, R. (2017). Air quality effects on human health and approaches for its assessment through microfluidic chips. Genes, 8(10), 244.

[70] Septiyana, D., Sukmono, A., & Yusuf, M. A. (2023). Pemantauan Kualitas Udara ISPU (PM10, SO2, NO2) Menggunakan Citra Landsat 8 dan 9 untuk Kecamatan Mijen Selama Pandemi Covid-19. Jurnal Geodesi Undip, 12(3), 271-280.

[71] Shidki, H., Chandra, I., & Djunaedy, E. (2020). Analisis kualitas udara dalam ruangan pada kantor terbuka di Universitas Telkom. eProceedings of Engineering, 7(1).

[72] Shrestha, R. M., Kim Oanh, N. T., Shrestha, R. P., Rupakheti, M., Rajbhandari, S., Permadi, D. A., Kanabkaew, T., dan Iyngararasan, M. (2019). Atmospheric Brown Clouds: Emission Inventory Manual

[73] Srimuruganandam, B., & Nagendra, S. M. S. (2016). Analysis and interpretation of particulate matter–PM10, PM2. 5 and PM1 emissions from the heterogeneous traffic near an urban roadway. Atmospheric Pollution Research, 1(3), 184-194.

[74] Sumeru, K. (2021). Pengaruh Asap Rokok pada Konsentrasi Partikulat PM10 di Dalam Rumah. In Prosiding Industrial Research Workshop and National Seminar (Vol. 12, pp. 814-820).

[75] Szymczak W, Menzel N, Keck L (2007) Emission of ultrafine copper particles by universal motors controlled by phase angle modulation. J Aerosol Sci 38:520–531

[76] Tan CCL, Finney KN, Chen Q et al (2013) Experimental investigation of indoor air pollutants in residential buildings. Indoor Built Environ 22:471–489. https://doi.org/10.1177/1420326X12 441806

[77] Thangavel, P., Park, D., & Lee, Y. C. (2022). Recent insights into particulate matter (PM2. 5)-mediated toxicity in humans: an overview. International journal of environmental research and public health, 19(12), 7511.

[78] Tofful L, Canepari S, Sargolini T, Perrino C (2021) Indoor air quality in a domestic environment: combined contribution of indoor and outdoor PM sources. Build Environ 202:108050. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.108050.

[79] Um, C.Y., Zhang, N., Kang, K., Na, H., Choi, H., Kim, T., (2022). Occupant behavior and indoor particulate concentrations in daycare centers. Sci. Total Environ. 824, 153206. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153206

[80] Vardoulakis, S., Giagloglou, E., Steinle, S., Davis, A., Sleeuwenhoek, A., Galea, K. S., ... & Crawford, J. O. (2020). Indoor exposure to selected air pollutants in the home environment: a systematic review. International journal of environmental research and public health, 17(23), 8972.

[81] Vasile, V., Iordache, V., & Radu, V. M. (2023). The influence of ventilation on indoor air quality in buildings with variable pollutant emissions. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science (Vol. 1185, No. 1, p. 012006). IOP Publishing.

[82] Vu, T. V., Ondracek, J., Zdímal, V., Schwarz, J., Delgado-Saborit, J. M., & Harrison, R. M. (2017). Physical properties and lung deposition of particles emitted from five major indoor sources. Air Quality, Atmosphere & Health, 10, 1-14.

[83] Wadoe, M., Syifaudin, D. S., Alfianna, W., Aifa, F. F., Narlika, D. P., Savitri, R. A., ... & Sulistyarini, A. (2019). Penggunaan Dan Pengetahuan Sunscreen Pada Mahasiswa Unair. Jurnal Farmasi Komunitas, 6(1), 1-8.

[84] Wang, X., Xu, Z., Su, H., Ho, H. C., Song, Y., Zheng, H., ... & Cheng, J. (2021). Ambient particulate matter (PM1, PM2. 5, PM10) and childhood pneumonia: the smaller particle, the greater short-term impact?. Science of The Total Environment, 772, 145509.

[85] Watson, J. G., Tropp, R. J., Kohl, S. D., Wang, X., & Chow, J. C. (2017). Filter processing and gravimetric analysis for suspended particulate matter samples. Aerosol Science and Engineering, 1, 93-105.

[86] Widiatmono, B. R., Kurniati, E., & Imaya, A. T. (2020). Analisis sebaran polutan SO2, NOx dan pm10 dari sumber bergerak pada jalan arteri Kota Malang. Jurnal Sumberdaya Alam dan Lingkungan, 6(3), 40–51.

[87] Wijayanti, R. N. 2010. Analisis Pengaruh Kepadatan Lalu Lintas Terhadap Konsentrasi PM10. Teknik Lingkungan. Universitas Diponegoro. Semarang.

[88] WHO Regional Office for Europe, 2015. Economic Cost of the Health Impact of Air Pollution in Europe: Clean Air. health and wealth.

[89] Wolkoff, P. (2018). Indoor air humidity, air quality, and health–An overview. International journal of hygiene and environmental health, 221(3), 376-390.

[90] Wu, F., Wang, W., Man, Y.B., Chan, C.Y., Liu, W., Tao, S., Wong, M.H., (2015). Levels of PM2.5/PM10 and associated metal(loid)s in rural households of Henan Province, China. Sci. Total Environ. 512–513, 194–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.scitotenv. 01.041.

[91] Yang, B. Y., Guo, Y., Bloom, M. S., Xiao, X., Qian, Z. M., Liu, E., ... & Dong, G. H. (2019). Ambient PM1 air pollution, blood pressure, and hypertension: Insights from the 33 Communities Chinese Health Study. Environmental Research, 170, 252-259.

[92] Younis, M. W., Kallapu, B., Hejamadi, R. M., Jijo, J., Ramesh, R. K., Aslam, M., & Jilani, S. F. (2024). Exploring the Influence of Tropical Cyclones on Regional Air Quality Using Multimodal Deep Learning Techniques. Sensors (Basel, Switzerland), 24(21), 6983.

[93] Yudhi Puspa Tia. (2018). Renovation 101: Pencahayaan & Penghawaan Alami Dalam Rumah. Diakses online pada Tanggal 09 November 2024 (https://www.livingloving.net/2018/more-articles/home/renovation-101-pencahayaan-penghawaan-alami-dalam-rumah/).

[94] Zareba, M., Weglinska, E., & Danek, T. (2024). Air pollution seasons in urban moderate climate areas through big data analytics. Scientific Reports, 14(1), 3058.

[95] Zhang, X., Saini, A., Hao, C., & Harner, T. (2020). Passive air sampling and nontargeted analysis for screening POP-like chemicals in the atmosphere: Opportunities and challenges. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 132, 116052.

[96] Zhao, Y., Song, X., Wang, Y., Zhao, J., & Zhu, K. (2017). Seasonal patterns of PM10, PM2. 5, and PM1. 0 concentrations in a naturally ventilated residential underground garage. Building and Environment, 124, 294-314.